Crime and Victimization in America
Statistical Overview

General

• A total of 25.9 million violent and property victimizations occurred in the United States in 2000. Compared with the previous year, violent crime declined 15%, and property crime 10%.¹
  
  
• Almost every demographic group examined experienced a decline in violent crime rates in 2000. The rate of personal victimization was 29.1 per 1000 people. The decline in property crime rate was likewise experienced by most demographic segments. The rate of property victimization was 178.1 per 1000.²
  
  
• Of all victims of violent crimes, 48% reported the crime to the police. Of property crime victims, 36% filed a report.³
  
  
• Only a minority (23%) of violent crime victims faced an armed offender. The least likely to be victimized by an armed offender were rape/sexual assault victims (6%), while the most likely to face an armed offender were victims of robbery (55%).⁴
  
  
• Persons age 12 to 19 experienced all crimes at rates significantly higher than other age groups.⁵
  
  
• During 1999, an estimated 43.8 million people 16 or older had contact with the police. Of those, 19% (8.3 million) had contact to report a crime, 3% (1.3 million) because they had witnessed a crime, and 3% (1.3 million) were questioned as a crime suspect.⁶
  
  
• One in four victims of violent crime are injured during the crime. Females injured during a violent crime were more likely to have been victimized by an intimate partner (37%) than by strangers (24%). The opposite was the case with male victims: a minority were injured by intimate partners (4%), while the majority (56%) were injured by a stranger. Non-intimate family members or acquaintances made up 39% of assailants for injured women, and 40% for injured men.⁷
  
  
• Analysis of crime victimization statistics between 1993 and 1998 reveals that most (66%) violent crime against whites and most (76%) violent crime against blacks was committed by an offender of the victim’s own race. The opposite was true for Native American and Asian American victims; they were primarily victimized by members of a different race.⁸
  
  
• In 1999, approximately 4.1% of injuryrelated emergency room visits were due to assaults. The leading reason for assault related injuries was an unarmed fight or brawl.⁹

Cost of Crime

• The estimated annual direct cost of child abuse and neglect in the United States amounts to $24,384,347,302; indirect cost to $69,692,535,227; for a total of $94,076,882,529.¹⁰
  
  
• Internet auction fraud cost consumers $4 million in 2000.¹¹
  
  
• Total loss because of telemarketing fraud was $5,679,855 and average loss was $1,462.¹²
  
  
• While women and men were equally likely to lose pay as a result of suffering injuries due to workplace violence, women lost less money ($358 compared to $1,032 lost by men).
  
  
• However, women lost more money ($2,716) than men ($1,278) when it came to lost time from work for reasons other than bodily injury.¹³
  
  
• In 2000, the total amount paid by Victim Compensation programs was $295,447,580. Of that, $141,310,762 was for medical expenses, $48,738,160 for mental health expenses; $46,083,821 for economic support (lost wages, loss of support); $39,345,851 for funeral expenses; $3,467,410 for crime scene cleanup; $4,759,393 for forensic exams; and $11,742,183 for other purposes.¹⁴
  
  
• Victims of burglary lost almost $3 billion in 2000. The average dollar loss per incident was $1,462.¹⁵
  
  
• In 2000, the average value of property stolen as a result of larcenytheft was $735. Cumulatively, more than $5.1 billion was stolen as a result of larceny theft.¹⁶
  
  
• Nearly $7.8 billion worth of motor vehicles was stolen in 2000. The average value per vehicle was $6,682.¹⁷
  
  
• The average monetary value for all types of structures damaged by arson was $19,479.¹⁸

Corrections

• At midyear 2000, 1,931,859 people were incarcerated in prisons and jails.¹⁹
  
  
• Between midyear 1999 and midyear 2000, the U.S. prison populations rose by 2.3 %, the smallest annual increase in a decade.²⁰
  
  
• Over the ten year period (between 1990 and 2000) the rate of incarceration in prison and jail rose from 1 in 218 U.S. residents to 1 in 142.²¹
  
  
• Census studies of privately operated prisons showed 76,010 incarcerated persons, which represents a 9.1% increase since 1999.²²
  
  
• In 2000, 1,297 males per 100,000 men and 110 females per 100,000 women were incarcerated.²³
  
  
• The number of inmates under age 18 fell 6.6% between June 1999 and June 2000.²⁴
  
  
• Sixteen percent (191,000) of state prisoners, were identified as mentally ill at midyear 2000. Of those, 79% were receiving therapy or counseling, and 60% were receiving psychotropic medications.²⁵
  
  
• On December 31, 2000, 3,839,532 men and women were on probation, and 725,527 on parole.²⁶
  
  
• Of probationers, 52% had been convicted of a felony, 46% of a misdemeanor, and 2% of other infractions.²⁷
  
  
• Of parolees, 97% had been convicted of a felony.²⁸

Child Victimization

• There were an estimated 826,000 victims of child maltreatment across the nation in 1999. The rate of victimization was 11.8 per 1,000 children, which represents a 6.3% drop since the preceding year.²⁹
  
  
• An estimated 1,100 children died of abuse and neglect in 1999.³⁰
  
  
• Of child maltreatment victims, 482,384 children (58.4%) suffered neglect, 175,938 children (21.3%) were victims of physical abuse, and 93,338 (11.3%) were sexually abused.³¹
  
  
• Children age 0-3 were maltreated at the highest rates (13.9 per 1,000); rates declined as the age increased.³²
  
  
• Girls and boys were maltreated at similar rates with the exception of sexual abuse. Girls were sexually abused at the rate of 1.6 per 1,000 compared to 0.4 per 1,000 for boys.³³
  
  
• Almost 9/10 of all victims of child maltreatment were maltreated by at least one parent. Females were the perpetrator in 3/5 of cases (61.8%).³⁴
  
  
• Analysis of aggregate National Incident Based Reporting System (NIBRS) data from 12 states for 1997 shows that the majority of crimes against children reported to the police are physical assaults (73%), while the minority are sexual abuse (23%).³⁵
  
  
• For reported incidents, according to data from NIBRS, 3% of intimate partner assaults include a child abuse victim. Of police-reported child abuse cases, 13% also include an intimate partner assault.³⁶
  
  
• Seven percent of physical assaults and 10% of sexual assaults against children reported to the police involve more than one child. Multiple victim assaults are more prevalent against younger child victims.³⁷
  
  
• According to the latest update of a longitudinal study on the cycle of violence, being abused or neglected as a child increased the likelihood of juvenile arrest by 59%, adult arrest by 28%, and for a violent crime by 30%. Victims of physical abuse were most likely to have an arrest for violence (while victims of sexual abuse were least likely).³⁸
  
  
• Babysitters accounted for 4.2% of offenders who committed crimes against children under 6, and 0.5% of those who perpetrated crimes against juveniles (under 18).³⁹
  
  
• Almost one in five (19%) of young Internet users received an unwanted sexual solicitation in the past year. Three percent of the youth received a solicitation that involved offline contact or attempts or requests for offline contact. None of the solicitations resulted in a sexual contact or assault.⁴⁰
  
  
• In 97% of cases, solicitors were strangers; 2/3 were males. Of these, 24% were adults, and 48% juveniles. Females were identified as solicitors in one quarter of aggressive solicitations.⁴¹
  
  
• The physical location of the victim while using a computer was: 70% at own home, 30% at someone else’s home. The cyber-location of the victims was a chat room in two-thirds of the solicitations, while 24% of solicitations were received through instant messages.⁴²
  
  
• Almost half (49%) of all sexual solicitations were not revealed to anyone, while 24% were revealed to parents.⁴³
  
  
• Seven percent of cases of animal cruelty in 2000 involved child abuse. Perpetrators abused children and/or forced the victim to witness cruelty to animal(s).⁴⁴

Domestic Violence

• In 2000, 10% (655,350) of violent crime victims were victimized by an intimate. Twenty-one percent of violent crimes committed against females were committed by an intimate partner, while males experienced violent victimization by intimates in 3% of cases.⁴⁵
  
  
• One in seven intimate partner victimizations of a woman involved a weapon, and about one half of these resulted in a bodily injury.⁴⁶
  
  
• Women age 16 to 24 were the most vulnerable (15.7 per 1,000) to non-lethal intimate partner violence between 1993 and 1999.⁴⁷
  
  
• Women who are separated were victimized by an intimate at rates significantly higher than divorced, never married, or married women.⁴⁸
  
  
• In a study focused on arguments in which both partners engaged in physical violence, full time employed people were less likely to experience family violence, while those working and receiving welfare benefits were more likely to experience family violence relative to other employment status groups.⁴⁹
  
  
• The same study found that the number of children in the household, alcohol consumption, and previous history of engaging in violent arguments are all significant predictors of family violence. By contrast, satisfaction with social support from family and friends decreases violent family arguments.⁵⁰
  
  
• According to NIBRS data, 3% of intimate partner assaults include a child abuse victim, and 13% of child abuse cases also include an intimate partner assault.⁵¹
  
  
• Findings of a study on deterrent effects of arrest on intimate partner violence found that the arrest of the suspect (and any subsequent confinement) reduced the incidence of future aggression by 30%, according to victim interviews. According to police records, arrests may have decreased the amount of times the police had to intervene subsequently by between 4% and 10%.⁵²
  
  
• Domestic violence was a factor in 13% of animal cruelty cases in 2000.⁵³

Drunk Driving

• In 1999, 30% (12,321) of all traffic fatalities occurred in crashes in which a driver or non-occupant was intoxicated. When including crashes where a driver or non-occupant had been drinking but their BAC was below 0.10, a total of 15,786 (38%) of all traffic fatalities involved alcohol.⁵⁴
  
  
• Night-time fatal crashes are more likely to involve alcohol (49%) than day-time fatal crashes (11%). Similarly, alcohol is more prevalent in weekend fatal crashes (41%) when compared to weekday fatal crashes (22%).⁵⁵
  
  
• Twenty percent of male drivers involved in fatal crashes and ten percent of female drivers in fatal crashes were intoxicated in 1999.⁵⁶
  
  
• The percentage of drunk drivers is highest at ages 21-24 (27%). When age clusters are considered, drivers in the 21-44 age group are more likely to be intoxicated than drivers in the 15-20 age group and the drivers in the 45+ age group.⁵⁷
  
  
• Of probationers in 2000, 18% had been convicted of driving under the influence.⁵⁸

Elder Victimization

• Close to 121,000 Americans age 65 and older experienced violent crime in 2000.⁵⁹
  
  
• In 1999, strangers perpetrated 57.7% of violent crimes against the elderly.⁶⁰
  
  
• In 2000, 574 eldercides were committed.⁶¹
  
  
• In 2000, people older than 60 made up 35% of telemarketing fraud victims.⁶²
  
  
• One percent of animal cruelty cases in 2000 also involved elder abuse, where the perpetrator forced the victim to witness cruelty to animals.⁶³

Gun Violence

• Overall, offenders had firearms in 8% of violent crimes. Of sexual assaults, 3% involved a firearm; of robberies, 26%, and of simple and aggravated assault 6% were firearmrelated.⁶⁴
  
  
• About 2% (153,000) of 7.7 million applications for firearms permits or transfers were rejected last year. Among the categories of ineligible firearm owners are persons who are under indictment for or have been convicted of a crime punishable by imprisonment for more than one year; fugitives from justice; persons subject to a court order restraining him or her from harassing, stalking, or threatening an intimate partner or child; and persons who have been convicted in any court of a felony or misdemeanor crime of domestic violence.⁶⁵
  
  
• Since 1974, there have been 37 incidents of targeted school violence. These incidents involved 41 attackers, ages 11 to 21, and took place in 26 states. The gun used by the attacker was from their own home or a relative’s home in almost two thirds of the incidents.⁶⁶
  
  
• Sixty-six percent of homicide victims were murdered with a firearm.⁶⁷
  
  
• About 18% of state prisoners and 15% of federal prisoners reported that they were armed at the time of offense. Of state prisoners, 9% fired their weapon during the commission of the crime, and of federal prisoners 2% did likewise.⁶⁸
  
  
• Thirty percent of state inmates and 35% of federal inmates incarcerated for a violent crime reported they used or possessed a gun at the time of crime.⁶⁹
  
  
• Of state inmates who victimized an intimate partner, 27% were armed while committing the crime.⁷⁰
  
  
• Forty percent of state inmates and 56% of federal inmates who were armed during the offense received sentence enhancements because of firearm use.⁷¹
  
  
• On average, sentences for inmates who had firearms were 18 years of incarceration, compared to 12 years for those without such weapons.⁷²

Hate Crime

• In 2000, 8,154 hate crime incidents were reported to the police. Sixty-five percent of hate motivated offenses were offenses against persons, 34% were against property, and 0.6% were against society.⁷³
  
  
• Of reported hate crimes, 54% were motivated by race, 18% by religion, 16% by sexual orientation, 11% by ethnicity, 0.4% by disability, and 8 incidents had multiple biases.⁷⁴
  
  
• The number of anti-Semitic incidents that 44 states and the District of Columbia reported to the Anti-Defamation League was 1,606. This represents a 4% increase over a year.⁷⁵
  
  
• Of anti-Semitic incidents in 2000, 877 (54.6%) were acts of harassment (intimidation, threats, and assaults) and 729 (45.4%) were acts of vandalism (property damage as well as arson and cemetery desecration).⁷⁶
  
  
• College campuses experienced a 15% rise in anti-Semitic incidents in 2000, for a total of 69 acts.⁷⁷
  
  
• There were 2,151 incidents against 2,475 gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender individuals in 2000. These incidents were committed by 3,344 offenders.⁷⁸
  
  
• While the number of anti-lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender incidents reported to police in 2000 declined only slightly from 1999 levels (-1%), police refused complaints in 49% more instances.⁷⁹
  
  
• Sixty-four percent of the victims of anti-gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender violence were male and 77.5% identified themselves as gay or lesbian.⁸⁰
  
  
• There were 602 active hate groups, and 194 active “Patriot” groups in 2000. Activity included marches, rallies, speeches, meetings, leafleting, publishing literature or criminal acts.⁸¹

Homicide

• There were 15,517 murders committed in 2000.⁸²
  
  
• Males comprised 76% of murder victims.⁸³
  
  
• Forty-four percent of murders in 2000 were committed against the victim by a non-stranger.⁸⁴
  
  
• Homicide remains the leading cause of death for black males 15-24 years old, the second leading cause for black females 15-24, and the third leading cause for black males 25-44.⁸⁵
  
  
• A study of pregnancy-associated mortality found that homicide was the leading cause of death among pregnant women. Twenty percent of pregnant women who died during this period were murdered.⁸⁶
  
  
• The number of workplace homicides increased for the first time in six years (from 651 in 1999 to 677 in 2000).⁸⁷
  
  
• Between 1976 and 1998, 1,820 law enforcement officers were murdered. On average, the number of murdered police officers was 79 per year. The rate is on the decline.⁸⁸
  
  
• The majority of murdered police officers were killed with a firearm (92%). On average, 12% were killed with their own firearm.⁸⁹
  
  
• Of all murdered police officers, 39% were killed during an arrest situation, 16% responding to disturbance calls (bar fights, man with gun, family quarrel), 14% investigating suspicious persons/circumstances, and 14% during traffic pursuits/stops.⁹⁰
  
  
• Analysis of school-associated student homicides shows that an average of one homicide event occurs every seven school days. School-associated homicides increase at the beginning of the school year and near the transition between the fall and the spring semester, notably, after summer and winter breaks.⁹¹
  
  
• Of relationship violence victims, women age 35 to 49 are the most vulnerable to murder by intimate partners.⁹²

Identity Theft

• The Federal Trade Commission received more than 40,000 identity theft complaints during 2000.⁹³
  
  
• The most common types of identity theft complaints received by the Federal Trade Commission in 2000 were: credit card fraud (50%); unauthorized phone or utility services (25%); bank fraud (16%); fraudulent loans (9%); government documents (8%). About half of the complainants experienced multiple types of identity theft.⁹⁴
  
  
• The average age of identity theft complainants was 41. Of all age groups, 31-40 year olds experienced the highest percentage of identity theft (28.7%), while the least victimized by identity theft were those 18 year and younger (1.8%).⁹⁵
  
  
• Slightly more than 19% of victims of identity theft (who had provided this information) had a personal relationship with the suspect (family member; roommate; co-habitant; neighbor; co-worker/employer/employee, and otherwise known).⁹⁶

Property Crime

• In 2000, close to 3.5 million household burglaries, 937,000 motor vehicle thefts, and 14,916,000 thefts were committed in the United States.⁹⁷
  
  
• Households earning less than $7,500 and those earning more than $75,000 are equally likely (1 in about 4.5) and more likely than any other household income category to be a victim of property crime.⁹⁸
  
  
• The clearance rate for reported burglaries in 2000 was 13.4%.⁹⁹
  
  
• For larceny-theft, the national clearance rate in 2000 was 18.2%.¹⁰⁰
  
  
• In 2000, 1,165,559 motor vehicle thefts were reported to law enforcement. Law enforcement agencies had a clearance rate of 14.1%.¹⁰¹
  
  
• Nationwide, 78,280 arsons were reported to law enforcement in 2000. The clearance rate for reported arson incidents was 16.5%.¹⁰²
  
  
• In 2000, 345,732 persons were arrested on charges of fraud, and 18,952 on charges of embezzlement.¹⁰³

Same-Sex Domestic Violence

• Organizations participating in the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs reported 4,048 cases of domestic violence affecting gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender individuals in 2000. Compared with the previous year, there was a 29.7% increase in reports.¹⁰⁴
  
  
• Females represented 46.8% of domestic violence victims reported, while males accounted for 47.9%. An additional 3% self identified as transgender.¹⁰⁵
  
  
• The age distribution of same sex domestic violence victims was: 44.5% were between the ages of 30 and 44, 14.5% were aged 23 to 29, and 9.1% between 18 and 22, 8.7% between 45 and 64, 0.4% were over the age of 65, while those under 18 amounted to 1.7%.¹⁰⁶
  
  
• The plurality of victims (43.7%) were white, 15.1% were Latino, followed by African Americans (11.1%), and Asian Pacific Islanders (2.9%).¹⁰⁷
  
  
• Between 1993 and 1999, the National Crime Victimization Survey recorded an average of 13,740 male victims and 16,900 of female victims of same gender intimate partner violence.¹⁰⁸

School-Based Violence

• Students ages 12 through 18 experienced approximately 2.5 million crimes at school in 1999. Of these, 186,000 were serious violent crimes (aggravated assault, rape, robbery, and sexual assault), and 33 were homicides which involved school-aged children.¹⁰⁹
  
  
• Seventeen percent of students ages 12 through 18 reported the presence of gangs at their schools in 1999.¹¹⁰
  
  
• In a study of 15,686 youth in grades 6 through 10, 29% of the sample disclosed moderate or frequent involvement in bullying. Thirteen percent were involved as perpetrators, 10.6% as victims, and 6.3% as both.¹¹¹
  
  
• The results of a survey show that 74% of children age 8 to 11 reported the occurrence of teasing and bullying at their school. Among 12 to 15 year olds, this percentage rises to 84. Children in both age groups ranked bullying as a problem bigger than racism, AIDS, the pressure to try alcohol and drugs, or to have sex.¹¹²
  
  
• Analysis of school-associated student homicides shows that an average of one homicide event occurs every seven school days. School-associated homicides increase at the beginning of the school year and near the transition between the fall and the spring semester, notably, after summer and winter breaks.¹¹³
  
  
• Since 1974, there have been 37 incidents of targeted school violence. These incidents involved 41 attackers, ages 11 to 21, and took place in 26 states.¹¹⁴
  
  
• All of the incidents of targeted school violence (incidents of violence where a known attacker selects a particular target prior to their violent attack) were committed by boys or young men. More than three-fourths of incidents were preplanned by the attacker. Revenge was the motive in more than half of the cases. The attacker perceived himself to be persecuted, threatened, bullied, injured or attacked by others before the incident.¹¹⁵
  
  
• The gun used by the attacker was from their own home or a relative’s home in almost 2/3 of the incidents.¹¹⁶

Sexual Violence

• According to the victimization survey, 261,000 rapes and sexual assaults occurred in the United States in 2000.¹¹⁷
  
  
• In 2000, 17% of rape or sexual assault victims were victimized by an intimate. Women were raped or sexually assaulted by an intimate more frequently than men (18% vs. 0%).¹¹⁸
  
  
• Police recorded 90,186 incidents of forcible rape in 2000. Of these reports, 46.9% resulted in an arrest of at least one person.¹¹⁹
  
  
• Findings from a study of 3,006 women revealed that a rape victim was 9 times more likely to receive timely medical care if she reported the assault to the police or other authorities. Three out of four victims in this study who reported the rape to police received medical care whereas only 15% of rape victims who did not report the crime received post-rape medical care.¹²⁰
  
  
• The National College Women Victimization Study showed that 2.8% of college women experienced rape during the six month period in which the study was conducted. Of victims, 22.8% were victims of multiple rapes. If this data is calculated for a calendar year period, nearly 5% of college women are victimized during any given calendar year.¹²¹
  
  
• Among college women, 9 in 10 victims of rape and sexual assault knew their offender. Almost 13% of completed rapes, 35% of attempted rapes, and 22.9% of threatened rapes happened during a date.¹²²
  
  
• Off-campus sexual victimization is much more common among college women than on-campus victimization. Of victims of completed rape 33.7% were victimized on campus, and 66.3% off campus.¹²³
  
  
• Less than 5% of completed or attempted rapes against college women were reported to law enforcement. However, in 2/3 of the incidents the victim did tell another person, usually a friend, not family or school officials.¹²⁴
  
  
• Most campuses (79%) provide for formal disciplinary hearing for sexual assault cases, and 28% offer the option of an informal hearing. ¹²⁵
  
  
• Sixty percent of institutions of higher learning allow the accused to bring an attorney to the hearing, while the same right is granted to 54% of victims. In 94% of institutions, hearings are closed.¹²⁶
  
  
• Preponderance of evidence is the standard used by just over half of the boards adjudicating sexual assault cases on campuses.¹²⁷

Stalking

• A study that examined the experiences of female victims stalked by intimate partners found that 72.7% of victims were verbally threatened with physical violence (direct or implied). Almost 46% of victims experienced one or more violent incidents by the stalker. Thirty-seven percent of victims sustained physical injuries as a result.¹²⁸
  
  
• Victims reported that their stalkers abused alcohol in 57.8% of cases, and abused drugs in 51.3% of cases.¹²⁹
  
  
• Slightly more than 13% of the female students in a study of college women had been victims of stalking. However, if the definition of stalking must include a threat of harm (as is the case in many states) the extent of stalking among college females of stalking declines to 1.96%.¹³⁰
  
  
• Four in five college stalking victims know their offender. Of known stalkers, 42.5% were boyfriends or former boyfriends, 24.5% classmates, 10.3% were acquaintances, 5.6% friends, and 5.6% co-workers.¹³¹
  
  
• The most common forms of stalking of college women were being unwantedly contacted by telephone (77.7%); having an offender waiting outside or inside buildings (47.9%); being watched from afar (44%); being followed (42%); being sent letters (30.7%); and being e-mailed (24.7%). As a consequence of stalking, 3 in 10 victims reported emotional or psychological injuries.¹³²
  
  
• Only 10.3% of female college victims of stalking took any kind of legal/judicial action.¹³³

Substance Abuse and Crime

• Slightly more than 28% of offenders who committed crimes of violence were perceived to be under the influence of drugs or alcohol by their victims. Perpetrators of aggravated assault were most likely (32.2%) to be under the influence at the time of crime.¹³⁴
  
  
• Victims reported that their stalkers abused alcohol in 57.8% of cases, and abused drugs in 51.3% of cases.¹³⁵
  
  
• Adolescent girls who had experienced physical dating violence and girls who had experienced sexual dating violence exhibited problems with substance use such as heavy smoking, heavy drinking, driving after drinking, and cocaine use.¹³⁶
  
  
• When controlling for other factors, chronic drug users (users of cocaine and/or opiates on at least a weekly basis during the preceding year and tested positive on a urine screen) are 9 times more likely than non-chronic drug users (never used cocaine or opiates, have no visible track marks, tested negative for cocaine or opiates, but may have used marijuana or other drugs) to have ever robbed someone, almost 5 times more likely to have ever shot someone, and more than twice as likely to have committed any other violent acts. However, chronic drug users are at the same time almost twice more likely to have ever been beaten, more than 2.5 times likely to have been shot or raped, and almost 1.5 times more likely to have been robbed.¹³⁷

Teen Victimization

• In a study of high school students’ responses to dating violence, 43% of victims reported seeking help informally, 37% broke up or threatened to break up with the date, 35% responded aggressively, 32% were passive, and 8% sought help formally. Gender wise, girls were far more likely to respond aggressively (42%) than boys (26%). On the other hand, males took no action more often (24%) than females (6%). Also, more females (28%) than males (21%) reacted to dating aggression by breaking up.¹³⁸
  
  
• The rate of violent victimization in 2000 was highest in persons age 16-19 (64.3 in 1,000), and persons age 12-15 (60.1 in 1,000) than among any other age group.¹³⁹
  
  
• The Youth Risk Behavior Survey administered in Massachusetts to 9th through 12th-grade students found that 1 in 5 female public high school students experienced physical and/or sexual violence from a date. About 1 in 10 girls experienced physical violence only, while 1 in 25 experienced sexual violence exclusively. The survey did not assess the gender of victims’ dating partners.¹⁴⁰
  
  
• Girls who had experienced physical dating violence exhibited problems with substance use, unhealthy weight control, sexual risk behavior, pregnancy, and suicidality. Similarly, experiencing sexual violence was a predictor of substance abuse, diet pill use, sexual risk behavior, and suicidality among adolescent girls.¹⁴¹
  
  
• Between 24% and 40% of males involved in gang/group fights had been seriously injured, while approximately 12% of those who had not been involved in such fights had been seriously injured. Among females, 27% of those involved in gang/group fights had been seriously injured, while 8% of those who had not been involved in such fights had been seriously injured.¹⁴²
  
  
• Males who carried weapons were approximately three times more likely to be victimized than those who did not carry weapons—27% to 33% of weapons carriers became victims, as opposed to only 10% among those who did not carry weapons. Of females who carried weapons, 21% had been victims, and of those who did not carry weapons, only 6% had been victims.¹⁴³
  
  
• While only 6% to 8% of males with no risk factors were victimized, 50% to 70% who had four or more risk factors had been victimized. Among females with no risk factors, 5% had become victims; among those with one risk factor, 10% had become victims; and among those with two or more risk factors, 42% had become victims.¹⁴⁴

Workplace Violence

• According to the data from the National Crime Victimization Survey from 1992 through 1996, males were more likely than females to be the victims of repeated violent crime in the workplace. Almost 22% of men, and 15.1% of women experienced aggravated assault at work. However, more women (6.3%) than men (0.6%) were victims of rape or sexual assault on the job.¹⁴⁵
  
  
• In teaching, law enforcement, and retail, women were more likely than men in the same occupation to be the victims of robbery. Similarly, in law enforcement and transportation, women were more likely than men to be the victims of simple assault.¹⁴⁶
  
  
• Fifty-eight percent of violent acts against males in the workplace resulted in injury compared to 53% of acts against females. However, a higher percentage of women who were injured (26%) than men (24%) lost time from work as a result. Women lost an average of 22 days of work compared to an average of eight days for men.¹⁴⁷
  
  
• While women and men were equally likely to lose pay as a result of suffering injuries due to workplace violence, women lost less money ($358 compared to $1,032 lost by men). However, women lost more money ($2,716) than men ($1,278) when it came to lost time from work for reasons other than bodily injury.¹⁴⁸
  
  
• Household members of women involved in incidents of workplace violence were more likely than those of men to lose time from work (1% compared to 0.3%).¹⁴⁹
  
  
• The number of workplace homicides increased for the first time in six years (from 651 in 1999 to 677 in 2000).¹⁵⁰
  
  
• For those workplace homicides where the motive could be ascertained, robbery was the initial motive in 291 cases.¹⁵¹

Legislative Summary¹⁵²

• Thirty-two states have constitutional rights for crime victims.
  
  
• Every state and the District of Columbia allow victim impact statements at sentencing. Forty-eight states and the District of Columbia permit victim input concerning parole.
  
  
• In seven of those states, victims may submit electronically recorded impact statements for consideration by the paroling authority.
  
  
• In at least 26 states, a victim’s right to confer with the prosecutor requires a prosecutor to obtain the victim’s views concerning the proposed plea. Twenty-three states specifically give victims the right to be heard or to have their views presented to the court at a hearing on the acceptance of the plea agreement. • In 41 states, victims are to be notified of canceled or rescheduled hearings.
  
  
• As of June 2001, 39 states have enacted legislation related to identity theft. Twenty-one states consider identity theft a felony, while five states treat the crime as a misdemeanor. In the remaining 13 states, varying classifications and penalties are imposed depending on the degree of violation, with the value of the property stolen being the most common determining factor. Fifteen states have legislation that specifically requires the offender to make restitution to the victim of the identity theft.
  
  
• All states and the District of Columbia have adopted laws requiring HIV testing of certain sex offenders.
  
  
• Forty-one states and the District of Columbia give crime victims the right to attend the trial. In some of these states, a victim is still subject to exclusion if scheduled to testify as a witness.
  
  
• Convicted sex offenders are required to register with state or local law enforcement in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Each state and the District of Columbia have also enacted laws providing for community notification of the release of sex offenders or allow public access to sex offender registration. Twenty-nine states maintain sex offender registry web sites, while eight states maintain sex offender web sites with limited information.
  
  
• Restitution orders in 43 states may be enforced in the same manner as civil judgments. Juvenile offenders may be ordered to pay restitution in 48 states, and the child’s parent or legal guardian may be held responsible for a portion of such restitution in 32 states. In addition, civil liability for personal injury, property damage, or both resulting from a child’s intentionalact may be imposed against the child’s parent or guardian in 49 states and the District of Columbia.
  
  
• Victims are provided notice of the escape of a convicted offender in 48 states, although only 23 of those states require notification of victims when the offender is recaptured. Twenty-one states require victim notification when an offender escapes from a mental health facility, institution, or state hospital.
  
  
• Courts in 43 states and the District of Columbia must consider evidence of domestic violence when determining child custody issues.
  
  
• Stalking is a crime in every state and the District of Columbia. Eight states create a specific civil cause of action for stalking. At least 40 states now have laws that explicitly include electronic forms of communication within their stalking or harassment laws.
  
  
• Separate or secure waiting areas are to be provided where possible to minimize contact between victims and the offenders family members or friends during court proceedings in 39 states.
  
  
• Forty-six states have enacted legislation providing employment intercession services, and in some states, employment protection, for victims in an attempt to minimize the risk of employment termination, harassment, and loss of wages or benefits to victims absent from work to attend criminal judicial proceedings or participate in other prosecution- related activities.
  
  
• Individuals in dating relationships can obtain protective orders against their abusers in 30 states. Of those, 20 states provide mechanisms for minors in dating relationships to secure such protection.

Notes

1. Rennison, Callie. (2001). Criminal Victimization 2000 Changes 1999-2000 with Trends 1993-2000. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid.

5. Ibid.

6. Durose, Matthew, Greenfeld, Lawrence, Langan, Patrick, Levin, David, Smith, Steven. (2001). Contact between Police and the Public, Findings from the 1999 National Survey. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

7. Simon, Thomas, Mercy, James. (2001). Injuries from Violent Crime, 1992-98. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

8. Rennison, Callie. (2001). Violent Victimization and Race, 1993-98. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

9. McCaig, Linda, Burt, Catharine. (2001). National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 1999 Emergency Department Summary. Washington, D.C.: Department of Health and Human Services.

10. Prevent Child Abuse America. (2001). Total Estimated Cost of Child Abuse and Neglect in the United States. [On-line]. Available: http://www.preventchildabuse.org/research_ctr/cost_analysis.pdf.

11. Federal Trade Commission. (2001). Identity Theft Complaint Data: Figures and Trends on Identity Theft January 2000 through December 2000. Washington, D.C.: Federal Trade Comission.

12. National Fraud Information Center. (2001). Telemarketing Fraud Statistics. [On-line]. Available: http://www.fraud.org/ telemarketing/teleset.htm.

13. Fisher, Bonnie, Gunnison, Elaine. (2001). “Violence in the Workplace Gender Similarities and Differences.” Journal of Criminal Justice 29: 145-155.

14. National Association of Crime Victim Compensation Boards. Dan Eddy (personal communication, August 29, 2001).

15. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2000). Crime in the United States, 2000. Washington, D.C.: Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid.

19. Beck, Allen, Karberg, Jennifer. (2001). Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2000. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid.

25. Beck, Allen, Maruschak, Laura. (2001). Mental Health Treatment in State Prisons, 2000. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

26. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (August 26, 2001). National Correctional Population Reaches New High, Grows by 126,400 During 2000 to Total 6.5 million adults. Press Release. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

27. Ibid.

28. Ibid.

29. Children’s Bureau. (2001). Child Maltreatment 1999: Reports From the States to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. Washington, D.C.: Children’s Bureau, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

30. Ibid.

31. Ibid.

32. Ibid.

33. Ibid.

34. Ibid.

35. Finkelhor, David, Ormrod, Richard. (2001). Child Abuse Reported to the Police. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

36. Ibid.

37. Ibid.

38. Widom, Cathy, Maxfield, Michael. (2001). An Update on the Cycle of Violence. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.

39. Finkelhor, David, Ormrod, Richard. (2001). Crimes Against Children by Babysitters. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

40. Finkelhor, David, Mitchell, Kimberly, Wolak, Janis. (2001). Highlights of the Youth Internet Safety Survey. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid.

43. Ibid.

44. Humane Society of the United States. (2001). First Strike Campaign: 2000 Report of Animal Cruelty, Executive Summary. [On-line]. Available: http://www.hsus2.org/firststrike/factsheets/firststrike_stats.html

45. Rennison, Callie. (2001). Criminal Victimization 2000 Changes 1999-2000 with Trends 1993-2000. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

46. Rennison, Callie. (2001). Intimate Partner Violence and Age of Victim, 1993-99. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid.

49. Rodriguez, E; Lasch, K, Chandra, P, Lee, J. (2001). Family Violence, Employment Status, Welfare Benefits, and Alcohol Drinking in the United States: What is the Relation? Ithaca, NY: The Health Institute/Division of Clinical Care Research of the New England Medical Center.

50. Ibid.

51. Finkelhor, David, Ormrod, Richard. (2001). Child Abuse Reported to the Police. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

52. Maxwell, Christopher, Garner, Joel, Fagan, Jeffrey. (2001). The Effects of Arrest on Intimate Partner Violence: New Evidence from the Spouse Assault Replication Program. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.

53. Humane Society of the United States. (2001). First Strike Campaign: 2000 Report of Animal Cruelty, Executive Summary. [On-line]. Available: http://www.hsus2.org/firststrike/factsheets/firststrike_stats.html

54. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (2001). Alcohol Involvement in Fatal Crashes 1999. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

58. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (August 26, 2001). National Correctional Population Reaches New High, Grows by 126,400 During 2000 to Total 6.5 million adults. Press Release. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

59. Rennison, Callie. (2001). Criminal Victimization 2000 Changes 1999-2000 with Trends 1993-2000. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

60. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2001). Criminal Victimization in United States, 1999: Statistical Tables. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

61. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2000). Crime in the United States, 2000. Washington, D.C.: Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice.

62. National Fraud Information Center. (2001). Telemarketing Fraud Statistics. [On-line]. Available: http://www.fraud.org/telemarketing/teleset.htm

63. Humane Society of the United States. (2001). First Strike Campaign: 2000 Report of Animal Cruelty, Executive Summary. [On-line]. Available: http://www.hsus2.org/firststrike/factsheets/firststrike_stats.html

64. Rennison, Callie. (2001). Criminal Victimization 2000 Changes 1999-2000 with Trends 1993-2000. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

65. Bowling, Michael. (2001). Background Checks for Firearm Transfers, 2000. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

66. U.S. Secret Service National Threat Assessment Center. (2000). Safe School Initiative: An Interim Report on the Prevention of Targeted Violence in School. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Departments of Treasury and Education with the support from the National Institute of Justice.

67. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2000). Crime in the United States, 2000. Washington, D.C.: Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice.

68. Harlow, Caroline. (2001). Firearm Use by Offenders. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

69. Ibid.

70. Ibid.

71. Ibid.

72. Ibid.

73. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2000). Crime in the United States, 2000. Washington, D.C.: Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice.

74. Ibid.

75. Foxman, Abraham, Tobias, Glen. (2000). Audit of Anti-Semitic Incidents. New York, NY: Anti-Defamation League.

76. Ibid.

77. Ibid.

78. Moore, Ken. (2001). Anti-Lesbian, Gay, Transgender and Bisexual Violence in 2000. New York, NY: New York City Gay and Lesbian Anti-Violence Project.

79. Ibid.

80. Ibid.

81. Southern Poverty Law Center. (2001). Intelligence Report. Issue 103, Fall.

82. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2000). Crime in the United States, 2000. Washington, D.C.: Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice.

83. Ibid.

84. Ibid.

85. Kochanek, Kenneth, Smith, Betty, Anderson, Robert. (2001). Deaths: Preliminary Data for 1999. Washington, D.C.: Department of Health and Human Services.

86. Horon, Isabelle, Chome, Diana. (2001). “Enhanced Surveillance for Pregnancy-Associated Mortality – Maryland, 1993-1998”. JAMA 225 (11): 1455- 1459.

87. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2001). National Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries in 2000. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

88. Brown, Jodi, Langan, Patrick. (2001). Policing and Homicide, 1976-98: Justifiable Homicide by Police, Police Officers Murdered by Felons. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

89. Ibid.

90. Ibid.

91. Centers for Disease Control. (2001). Temporal Variations in School-Associated Student Homicide and Suicide Events–United States, 1992-1999. [On-line]. Available: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5031a1.htm

92. Rennison, Callie. (2001). Intimate Partner Violence and Age of Victim, 1993-99. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

93. Federal Trade Commission. (2001). Identity Theft Complaint Data: Figures and Trends on Identity Theft January 2000 through December 2000. Washington, D.C.: Federal Trade Commission.

94. Ibid.

95. Ibid.

96. Ibid.

97. Rennison, Callie. (2001). Criminal Victimization 2000 Changes 1999-2000 with Trends 1993-2000. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

98. Ibid.

99. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2000). Crime in the United States, 2000. Washington, D.C.: Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice.

100. Ibid.

101. Ibid.

102. Ibid.

103. Ibid.

104. Moore. Ken. (2001). Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Domestic Violence in 2000. New York, NY: National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs.

105. Ibid.

106. Ibid.

107. Ibid.

108. Rennison, Callie. (2001). Intimate Partner Violence and Age of Victim, 1993-99. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

109. Kaufman et al. (2001). Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2001. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Departments of Education and Justice.

110. Ibid.

111. Nansel, Tonja et al. (2001). “Bullying Behaviors Among US Youth: Prevalence and Association With Psychological Adjustment.” JAMA 285 (16): 2094-2100.

112. Kaiser Family Foundation. (2001). Talking With Kids About Tough Issues: A National Survey of Parents and Kids. [On-line]. Available: http://www.talkingwithkids.org

113. Centers for Disease Control. (2001). Temporal Variations in School-Associated Student Homicide and Suicide Events–United States, 1992-1999. [On-line]. Available: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5031a1.htm

114. U.S. Secret Service National Threat Assessment Center. (2000). Safe School Initiative: An Interim Report on the Prevention of Targeted Violence in School. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Departments of Treasury and Education with the support from the National Institute of Justice.

115. Ibid.

116. Ibid.

117. Rennison, Callie. (2001). Criminal Victimization 2000 Changes 1999-2000 with Trends 1993-2000. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

118. Ibid.

119. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2000). Crime in the United States, 2000. Washington, D.C.: Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice.

120. Resnick et al. (2000). “Predictors of post-rape medical care in a national sample of women.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 19 (4): 224.

121. Fisher, Bonnie, Cullen, Francis, Turner, Michael. (2000). The Sexual Victimization of College Women. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice and Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

122. Ibid.

123. Ibid.

124. Ibid.

125. Penney, Sophie, Tucker, Lawrence, Lowery, John. (2000). National Baseline Study on Campus Sexual Assault: Adjudication of Sexual Assault Cases. College Station, TX: Association for Student Judicial Affairs.

126. Ibid.

127. Ibid.

128. Brewster, Mary. (2000). “Stalking by Former Intimates: Verbal Threats and Other Predictors of Physical Violence.” Violence and Victims 15 (1): 41-54.

129. Ibid.

130. Fisher, Bonnie, Cullen, Francis, Turner, Michael. (2000). The Sexual Victimization of College Women. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice and Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

131. Ibid.

132. Ibid.

133. Ibid.

134. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2001). Criminal Victimization in United States, 1999: Statistical Tables. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

135. Brewster, Mary. (2000). “Stalking by Former Intimates: Verbal Threats and Other Predictors of Physical Violence.” Violence and Victims 15 (1): 41-54.

136. Silverman, Jay, Raj, Anita, Mucci, Lorelei, Hathaway, Jeanne. (2001). “Dating Violence Against Adolescent Girls and Associated Substance Use, Unhealthy Weight Control, Sexual Risk Behavior, Pregnancy, and Suicidality.” JAMA 286 (5): 572-579.

137. McCoy, Virginia, Messiah, Sarah, Yu, Zhinuan. (2001). “Perpetrators, Victims, and Observers of Violence.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 16(9): 890-909.

138. Watson, Jennifer, Cascardi, Michele, O’Leary, Daniel. (2001). “High School Students’ Responses to Dating Aggression.” Violence and Victims, (16)3: 339-343.

139. Rennison, Callie. (2001). Criminal Victimization 2000 Changes 1999-2000 with Trends 1993-2000. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

140. Silverman, Jay, Raj, Anita, Mucci, Lorelei, Hathaway, Jeanne. (2001). “Dating Violence Against Adolescent Girls and Associated Substance Use, Unhealthy Weight Control, Sexual Risk Behavior, Pregnancy, and Suicidality.” JAMA 286 (5): 572-579.

141. Ibid.

142. Loeber, Rolf, Kalb, Larry, Huizinga, David. (2001). Juvenile Delinquency and Serious Injury Victimization. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

143. Ibid.

144. Ibid.

145. Fisher, Bonnie, Gunnison, Elaine. (2001). “Violence in the Workplace Gender Similarities and Differences.” Journal of Criminal Justice 29: 145-155.

146. Ibid.

147. Ibid.

148. Ibid.

149. Ibid.

150. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2001). National Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries in 2000. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.

151. Ibid.

152. Unless otherwise noted, these data reflect the status of legislation in states as of the end of their 2000 main legislative sessions. All data are derived from the National Center for Victims of Crime’s Legislative Database.